Philosophical Themes in Yakthung Mundhums: A Reflection from Indigenous Perspective (Dr. Chaitanya Subba)

Philosophical Themes in Yakthung Mundhums: A Reflection from Indigenous Perspective

Dr. Chaitanya Subba

Abstract

Yakthung Mundhums are basically oral literature survived through ages despite repeated episodes of ups and downs experienced by its custodians and practitioners. They are distinct indigenous knowledge of Yakthung (Limbu) communities. Yakthung ways of life, customs, cultures, social systems and structures, and social relations are guided by the philosophical themes of Mundhums and their norms, values and world vision are rooted inMundhums. This paper discusses briefly the philosophical themes ofYakthung Mundhums that encompasses epistemology (Sikkum Kuhupsen), metaphysics/ontology (Samjik Mundhum), axiology (Mellung Ingjum), particularly ethics (Thimjik Mundhum), and social and political philosophy (Sangchumgen nu Hangthim Mundhum).

Mundhum epistemology (Sikkum Kuhupsen) embodies intergenerational and trans-generational, cumulative and often collective or interactive prolonged processes and intensive and intimate methods of knowledge production, validation, dissemination, transmission or sharing and preservation. Poly-phasic perceptual processes are most common for gaining and consolidation of knowledge and from information to knowledge to wisdom is a long journey of maturation as in other indigenous societies. Samjik Mundhum (metaphysics/ ontology) elucidates the nature of the world and makes no distinction between animate and inanimate beings, all including gods and goddesses, human beings and plants and animals, rocks, mountains and rivers, having spirits or souls and interacting and interconnected each other. It also highlights the Yakthung spirituality enlivened by Yumaism and its geography is primarily Yakthung Laze, the country of Yakthung. Axiological themes, particularly contents of ethic (Thimjik Mundhum), ingrained in Yakthung Mundhums are elaborative ones that shape the cosmological and social order. Mundhums also contain basic themes and ideas of social and political philosophies for better socio-economic and political order and management. The paper concludes with the arguments thatPhedangmas, Sambas, Yemas and Yebas and other Mundhumsabas are not only custodians of Mundhums and transmitters/repositories of Yakthung indigenous knowledge, but are also indigenous philosophers, though not so-called literate in the modern sense of education and finally appeals that everybody should come forward to further identify, analyze, synthesize and consolidate the philosophical themes of Mundhums and enlighten present Yakthung generation by their age-old indigenous philosophies.

Introduction(P:anlang)

The Yakthung (Limbu) term Mundhum has varied meanings depending upon the context and subject matter under inquiry. It is a scripture, sacred narrative, mythology, legend, proto- and pre-historic accounts, and folk literature and has various forms of cosmological, spiritual, genealogical, philosophical and sociological deliberations, speculations and rationalizations. It is an indigenous knowledge sustained through centuries because of well-established oral tradition accompanied by ceremonies and rituals despite repeated episodes of ups and downs by its bearers or custodians and practitioners. It is also a systematic understanding (knowledge) of various natural and social phenomena in its current use. There is a wide range of Mundhums dealing with cosmogony/cosmology, ontology/metaphysics, spirituality or religion, axiology or ethics and aesthetics, epistemology, logics and social and political philosophy.Yakthung ways of life, customs, cultures, belief system, social systems and structures and social relationsare guided by the philosophical themes of Mundhums and their norms, values and world vision are deeply rooted in Mundhums.It is extremely difficult task to detect, identify, compile, analyze, classify, synthesize and abstract the philosophical concepts, contents and themes ofMundhums; however, many of us have to take the lead in this direction because the task is getting more complex with the passing of the time. Imansing Chemjong was the trailblazerwho initiated deliberation on this subject[1]. I heartily accept that I am completely incapable to deal with philosophy ingrained in Yakthung Mundhums as I am neither a Phedangma/ Samba or Yeba or a Mundhumsaba, traditional folk philosopher, nor a student of philosophy. I have attempted to deal with this subject here just because of my interest to instigate others to come forward to provide a complete picture of the philosophy of Yakthung Mundhums and also because of my feelings of obligation towards this end being a member of Yakthung society.My descriptions, discussions and assumptions in this paper are mainly based on the published works of Mundhums and their interpretations and in-depth interviews and focused discussions with some Sambas/Yebas and Mundhum experts.

The term 'philosophy' etymologically means 'the love for wisdom' which is interpreted as pursuit of concrete knowledge of the reality to gain wisdom in the respective fields. In this sense, philosophy identifies with science, but the fundamental difference is that philosophy does not discover empirical facts, instead it reflects on available facts and thus, science is to provide explanation, whereas philosophy is to provide reflective understanding. Philosophy is a rational reflection on pre-reflective understanding about life and the world or the nature reality[2]. It is an attempt of providing an outlook on life based on the discovery of broad fundamental principles and rational examination of the most basic elements of everyday experience and beliefs[3].There is consensus among the scholars that philosophy is a thoughtful interaction with the world, and it is a complete way of life. It should also be noted that there are different philosophical traditions between East and West on the ways of 'looking at the notion of being and change' and 'Eastern philosophy is closely connected with the religions of the East (Leaman, 2004:x-xi), whereas in Western tradition there is sharp distinction between philosophy and religion and Western philosophers believe that 'any thought to be worthy of the title of philosophy must necessarily deal with science as understood and practiced in the West during the last three hundred years (Puligandla, 2008:2-3).Yakthung philosophy or philosophy rooted in Yakthung Mundhum cannot be simply termed as 'mythico-religious thought', but it should be understood as closely connected with indigenous spirituality. By its classical tradition, philosophy has several branches or sub-fields and major among them are metaphysics (beyond physical existence/what is real?) or ontology (existence of Being), epistemology (How do we know? that is, theories of knowledge), logic (thinking about thinking/science of reasoning), axiology (value theory) that deals with ethics (what ought we to do?) and aesthetics (theory of beauty and appreciation), philosophy of religion and social and political philosophy. With these understanding of the concepts of philosophy the paper starts with the discussion onMundhum- based epistemology, then proceeds to the reflection on the metaphysics embedded in Yakthung Mundhums. The paper will also highlights the key axiological concepts, particularly of ethics, a recurrent themes of several Mundhums. In the final section, social and political philosophy as reflected in Mundhums and Limbu custom and cultures will be discussed briefly. The paper concludes with the appeal for the consolidation of Mundhum-based philosophy.

Epistemology (Sikkum Kuhupsen)

Epistemology known as the 'theory of knowledge' is a branch of philosophy that investigates 'the nature, scope, and quality of human knowledge' and establishes 'normative criteria for what is to count as knowledge'[4]. It is widely argued that indigenous epistemology has some distinct features (systems/institutions, processes,principles of methods and standards of practices) other than those of mainstream philosophies, particularly of Western world.Epistemology intrinsic to Yakthung Mundhums is, in fact, an indigenous epistemology with its distinct features, sources and justification of knowledge and has its own pristinesystems, institutions, features,principles, processes, methods and practices of knowledge production, transmission or sharing, diffusion, promotion, preservation and protection. Mundhums are the masterpieces of our intangible cultural heritage and they form core segments of Yakthung indigenous knowledge. Indigenous knowledge is described as holistic and credible which cannot be compartmentalized and separated from the people and is rooted in the spiritual health, culture and language of the people, and their relationships with their eco-system[5]. It is postulated that 'indigenous epistemology is explored through engaging and participating in a process that is a reflection of Indigenous ways of building knowledge' (Ermine 1995:104-106 cited in Hammersmith 2007:5). Mundhums and associated rituals and ceremoniesand other age-long knowledge sharing, transmission and accumulation practices exemplify such features that help us to deduce a theory of knowledge (Sikkum). In this tradition, knowledge is similar to acquiring skill (Tim)[6], arduous and continuous process leading towards perfection. Some major epistemological foundations, systems, processes and principles of methods of Mundhums can be summarized as follows:

(i) In the indigenous tradition, inter-generational and cross generational experiences (conceptual, perceptual, empirical, rational) and reflections on experiences or reflections on claims about claims are the foundations ofknowledge building and so, knowledge (Sikkum) is product of cumulative experiences involving prolonged processes, not of one-time empirical judgment. Inter-generational experiences and rational reflections on them provide validity and credibility to the knowledge constructed[7]. Mundhums have to be understood in this light. Not a single person can be attributed for the knowledge and wisdom contained in the Mundhums.Because of the cumulative and collective nature of the knowledge/ wisdom of Mundhumsand life history of its maturation (information to knowledge to wisdom), the distinction between priori knowledge (knowledge coming from pure reason or pure understanding)and posterioriknowledge(knowledge coming from specific sensory or perceptual experiences) or rationalism versus empiricismin knowledge building processis blurred, rather each process complement and contribute to other in Mundhum tradition.

(ii) Yakthung (indigenous) ways of knowledge construction, transmission and preservation involve its community members (participants of rituals, ceremonies and functions), not confined to its practitioners only. It is a collective endeavor and so it is a collective property, its beneficiaries are the whole community.

(iii)Knowledge in the context of Yakthung Mundhums has to be understood as combination of the principles (Itthimbe/Ingjum) of Yakthung epistemology, metaphysics/ontology and axiology. Yakthung knowledge (Sikkum) has two sources: perception (Neesam) that is, knowledge acquisition through sense organs or physical experiences and reflection (Itsam), knowledge generated from inner intuitive soul (Thanasam) or activated conscience (Khasing). Both intellectual and empirical processes are interconnected, complement and contribute each other and are in harmony.Thungsap-pesap (oral and literate tradition), Siwa Khahun(oral teachings/precepts),Sakwa muing (sacred messages/ invaluable instruction), Khe?ba;n (narrative), Tumpa:n (wise saying/elder's adage or precepts), Akkhe ta?jeng(long-held conclusions), Muring sumbhya (devotional remembrance),Panthang(debate),Yokkim tathakma(collective strategic thinking) are some of the components of information systems and belief systems related to epistemic principles activating both Neesam and Itsam.There is no dearth of references in Mundhums,which postulate that keen observation is also a key to perceptual propositions[8]. Tageraningwaphu Inghang (instructions/messages of Tageraningwaphu, supreme goddess), Sakwa Muing (sacred messages) and Siwa Khahun (oral teachings/precepts), frequently referred to in the Samjik Mundhum,are used as testimony, reliable, autonomous source of knowledge as par with inference, perception and memory.Terminologies of the Mundhums divulge that transcendental approaches and methods are most common that lead to intuition, insight, innovation and subsequent action[9].

(iii) A variety of perceptual processes are involved in knowledge formation. Apart from waking consciousness (Posam), poly-phasic consciousness[10] particularly trans-rational, altered state of consciousness such as trance (Thanchhingma), dreams(Tadi sepmangloma)[11], meditation/devotion (Mudam/Mudham), imagination (Itchhingma), ecstatic state(Mangthukma) are used in accessing knowledge. Perceptual processes incorporate trans-rational shamanic state of consciousness in Mundhum-based knowledge formation.They are also described as non-perceptual, supra-sensual, intuitive processes. I:tphekma (supreme consciousness/ knowledge coming down from generation to generation),Phe? (self-revelation), Therepmu (austerity to gain inner knowledge/ austere mental exercise),Yepyama (absorption/concentration, deep thinking in standing posture), Yungyama (meditating/ concentrating in sitting and dozing posture, looking inside closing almost three-quarter eye-lids), Suhen kumik temma (deeply perceive)

are some of the examples involved in such processes.

(iv) Inter-species communication[12] (communication between humans and spirits, between humans and plants and animal, between humans and celestial bodies, between humans and divinities and ancestors souls/ super sensitivity) is also a source of knowledge.Understanding of the languages of various species is primary condition for such communication, which is rare phenomenon. Mundhums of various themes abound with such references[13].

(v) The Native American understanding of the life history of maturity that the information collected have to go a long way to mature into knowledge and then to wisdom and judgments on any information and its interpretations and explanations are withheld 'until a sufficient number of similar experiences (amount of information) reveal the same meaning that is occurring'[14]is highly relevant to Yakthung society also. Maturity (Kulingdho/Samlingdho/Yalingdho[15]) is to avoid anomalies of inferences. Recurrent themes and contents of Mundhums advance the theory of gradual perfection (Chang/Kujang) along with the phases of maturity.

(vi) Narratives (Khe?ba:n), usually in poetic and metrical patterns, ritual performances or ceremonies, cultural signs and symbols, physical and behavioral artifacts and participation of community members in combination give meaning to a certain phenomena or experiences.Though seems discrete, each component contributes to the fuller understanding of the phenomena or subjects under inquiry. Thus, community participation in cultural life enriches and enlivens the knowledge handed down through generation.

(vii) Yeba, Yema, Samba and Phedangma and other Mundhumsaba (expert in Mundhums), Tum-Tumyang (senior or revered elder) and Pan-Tumyang (wise person/thinker) are institutions and authorities of knowledge production, transmission, dissemination, communication, protection, preservation and promotion and they have their own systems, traditions, techniques and methods for carrying out such activities.Sodhung Lepmuhang, Thililungma thamdetlungma, and Sammethumma Yepmethummaare invoked as primordial teachers of schools of Pedangma, Samba/Samma, and Yeba/Yema.Several types of Phedangma, Samba, Yeba, Yema representing different schools or disciplines and branches of Yakthung indigenous knowledge have appeared since time immemorial. They are Mundhum repositories, thus living carriers or transmitters of Mundhum-based knowledge.

(viii) Limbus has a rich oral culture and textuality is recent phenomena for them. Yakthung oral tradition with all its formulaic system and thematic structure, metrical narratives, rhythmic speech over prose, aesthetic contents, mnemonic devices, improvised composition in performance, dynamics of performers/singers and audiences anduse of rhetoric and styles of communication[16] is the main institution of knowledge retention, rejuvenation, reconstruction/reproduction, consolidation, transmission, dissemination or diffusion, protection, preservation and promotion. Yakthung philosophy has survived because of this tradition and no texts on philosophy are available in print forms so far.

(ix)Rites of the passage or the life cycle rituals are also serve as ways of providing/ accessing knowledge. The claim that 'indigenous knowledge is gained from a way of living and being in the world' (Hammersmith 2007:5) rightly applies in the context of Limbus. Rites and rituals associated with Mundhumsmake the themes, meanings and purposes more clear and participation in such activities is an opportunity to gain knowledge.Life cycle rituals provide vision of life to each member of Yakthung society.

(x) Yakthung Mundhums reveal that nature is thesource of human knowledge and all natural objects and species are the first teachers at par withcreator gods and goddesses (Sapmang Sikwa).Several insects, birds and animals likecrab (Khebak), small fish (Sanasokusap, Chijina yanghana), hornet (Ningkhuwa), long distance migratory birds (Karangwa), bird like a hawk (Khukwa), cuckoo bird, different types of wasp (Mangjum mangwa,Ijum iwa, Pajum padhe), a kind of wild cat (Wejumbu wehambe) and many othersare addressed, as revered teachers while invoking primeval teachers during the initiation ceremony of certain ritual[17]and indebtedness are expressed towards them for the fulfillment of their survival needs and accomplishment of humanaspirations.

(xi) In all Mundhums, Tagera Ningwahphuma[18] is described as omniscient or ultimate source of infinite knowledge and omnipresent or present everywhere at the same time,that is, all-pervading. These two characters make her omnipotent also, which is well illustrated in various Mundhumsrelating to Tagera Ningwaphuma. Knowledge (Sikkum Ningwa) is associated with power (Muk)and power derives from knowledge, the power that has to be used for ensuringwell-being(Aplung)of the people[19].There are lots of references in Mundhums that knowledge, accompanied by skills, is also a means leading to perfection. 

(xii)Mundhums and associated rituals repeatedly reinforce the belief system that the dead soul (Sisam) of unsuccessful disciple or disciple who could not complete expected level of crucial learning, known as Si?ya, is very harmful to living souls of human beings. Belief systems are epistemic principles and rationality of the belief system or rational changes of belief systemare concerns of such principles. The belief system concerningSi?ya, though degrees of belief are not uniform among all members of Yakthung society, presumes thatincomplete education or learning is dangerous to both learners/disciples and society/community.It is also associated with the concept of capabilities. There is also the belief that the learner or disciplemust offer money or some kind of valued presentation to the teacher (Sikwa) and after the completion of learning they have to offer The?masing (final presentation, mostly money today) to the teacher to get rid of the debt of learning or knowledge acquisition.

Metaphysics(Samjik Mundhum)and philosophy of religion (Samyo Mundhum)

Metaphysics (beyond physical existence) deals with ultimate status of reality or super sensible reality. In the similar vein, ontology deals with the nature of existence or the existence of 'Being'. Both of these terms are used interchangeably as their fields of reflections are almost similar- the reality or truth about the world and human being or nature of existence. The main difference can be summarized in this way: metaphysics deals with the abstract principles and ontology deals with the relation of these principles in the material world[20]. The Yakthung term Samjik Mundhum has been used to represent the concepts of metaphysics in the sense of supersensible reality, which is a soul or spirit (Sam), common to all. As Samjik Mundhum(metaphysics) deals with the relation of abstract principles governing the material world and thus existential reality, it is also ontology (Kuja? Mundhum).Some key concepts embedded inMundhumshave been briefly summarizedin the following paragraphs:

(i) Samjijik Mundhum is pluralist and posits that reality is made of multiplicity of

entities. It emphasizes on plurality and multiplicity rather than unity, difference rather than sameness and diversity and variety rather than homogeneity and thus plurality of existences. There are lots of references in Mundhums that multiplicity of substances exists in the universe and each of them has their own attributes, distinct properties and roles. Though they are discrete, they are inter-connected and inter-dependent for their existence (Thingo) or survival (Hingmetchhing) and for the existence of the universe. Because of pluralistic approach, the themes of the Samjik Mundhum seem closer to Vaisesika philosophy that emphasizes on pluralist realism, which needs extensive comparative study to reach to some definite conclusion.

(ii)Most popular Mundhums relating to cosmogony and cosmology expatiate on five basic substances (la:wa), viz. earth/soil (Khambek), ether (Tangsang), air (Kejang), water (Chaphat) and fire (Midhung) which are considered ultimate five powers (Ngamuk) as foundations of the universe and life giving forces to all living and non-living entities. They are eternal and finite, but their forms and composite structures may be transient and infinite.The earth (Iksa Khambek) is consists of infinite number of animate and animate entities and material and non-material substanceslike celestial bodies, space, air, fire, ocean or water, matters, humans, animals, plants and other organismsthat make it perfectly fascinating, bounteous and beautiful (Khemsing).

(iii) Mundhums divulge that there are two types of entities: physical or material (La:waba) and spiritual or supernatural beings (Sam/Sammang). Mang (deities), Sammang (divinities), Sammng Chyang(harmful inferior divinities), Sire (souls of primordial preceptors/teachers) and Sam (soul/spirit) are supernatural beings[21].The contents of Mundhums reveal that material world is characterized by its enormous diversity, plurality and particularity. The presence, functioning and survival of different entities in this universe, which are beautifully delineated in Mundhumslead us to think that pluralism keeps all together and ensure their survival.Dualism, as component of pluralism, can also be discerned in the apparent forms of division between appearance and reality, eternal idea and changing things, mind and matter, transcendental phenomena and empirical phenomena and sacred truth and profane reality and so on.

(iv)Mundhums and associated rituals and ceremonies imply that the existence of deities (Mang) and divinities (Sammng)can be realized through revelation, super-sensible (poly-phasic) experiences or transcendental encounters, and human reasoning.It is generally beyond human reasoning.It is believed thatrevelation or divine disclosure depends on the intensity and integrity of relationship betweenfollowers (Samba, Yeba/Yema and others) and deities expected to see.Deity incarnate is not unusual and shamanic practices of encountering supernatural beings are most common.Mundhums, particularly relating to cosmology, ontology and ethics, provide vivid descriptions of the existence, nature and activities of various deities.

(iv) Nawa Chait Mundhum, also known as Mujoklung Khejoklung Mundhum (creation myth) expatiates that several Mangs (deities) appeared in course of creating universe with specific purposes. It provides details of creations and their creators There is a long list of Mangs(Sapma Kumang Tumbuha) appeared in spatial-temporal order who started to build the structure of the cosmos and after fulfilling their roles they disappeared or very rarely appeared afterwards.. Creation (Nawa Chait) is attributed to creator, that is, Mang (Porokmi Yambhami Mang). Each object does not come into existence without its creator; each design has its supreme designer.  Each creation or existence is attributed to certain creator/divine power.This creation episode posits that first gods/goddesses are contingent beings and are not immutable. Finally, the structure of the cosmos, including the creation of human beings, completed with the idea of supreme Goddess Tagera Ninwaphuma and skills or efficacy of Porokmi Yambhami Mang, representing female and male power with the superiority of the former. Here too duality in function or action appears to succeed.

(v)All thematic Mundhums recurrently assert that Tagera Ningwaphuma, Yuma in popular parlance, is a creator and sustainer of the universe, a perfect entity of human obedience and worship.The terminology'Tagera Ningwaphu' denotes 'immanent mine or repository of knowledge' and indicates also as source of power. There is elaborate discussion on the philosophy of Yuma Samyo[22]. Influences of monism can be traced in the dispersed Mundhums relating to Tagera Ningwaphuma (Yuma), especially in those that seem to be of later period.

(vi) Mundhums and associated rituals, particularly related to nature divinities (Tap Sammangs) like Tambhungma, Taksangba, Misekpa, Shengma, Tenchhama, Tasangla, Khanjama, Wagongma, Warakma, Singlabaand many others demonstrate that all natural phenomena are endowed with life or spirit/soul and all animate and inanimate entities are treated, even revered as having their own spirits or souls, a concept emerged and developed from animism. Such spiritualism bridges the distinction between animate and inanimate entities, between natural phenomena and super-natural beings, and between rational reflection (particularly of social idealism) and material determinism.They interact and communicate each other and maintain balance in the natural environment (Oyam Chegaam).

(vii) Mangs do not interact with human beings or human souls/spirits (Sams), but many Mangs transform into Sammangs (divinities) and they (Sammangs) actively interact with humans through their souls/spirits (Sams). Thus, Yakthung metaphysical/ontological understanding leads us to believe that active relationships exist between Yakthungs and their divinities (Sammangs).

(viii) Mundhums indicate that there are eight/nine types of Sam (Yetchham/ Phangsam) that depicts the motif of complete soul. Among them, Nisam is related to perception (cognition through sense organs), Itsam/Itchham to intuition or supra-sensual consciousness, Muksam to power and Hangsam is related to dignity, self-actualization and progress. Thaksam, also known as Lapphingmasam, is a soul always attached to the body and Phungsamor Pangwamasam is a wandering soul, which may confront with Sammangs and evil spirits, and so, need to be protected. Sigi-sosam, sometimescalled Pesumma- peghomasam(soul brought back while wandering in different directions), is the active soul of the living person, whereasLechchham is the soul/spirit of the dead person, which causes harm to souls of living persons.Samjik Mundhum also posits that Sam (soul) transmigrate from person to person after the death of a person, from generation to generation after the passing away of a generation, from one species to another species after end of life of a species and from animate being to inanimate object after the life end of an animate being.This concept is associated with the concept of incarnation (Kereng) also.

(ix) Various Mundhums affirm that after the death of a person his or her soul generally go to the land/world of his/her ancestors (Samyukna Den)[23].Samsama Mundhum informs us that senior ancestor of the eighth generation from the present who passed away comes to receive the new member of his/her clan or community. Union with ancestors is the happiest moment after death for the people of this world is the theme of Tongsing Takma Mundhum.

(x) Samjik Mundhum provides a unique Cosmo-vision of several worlds (Den)[24], several divinities (Sammang), several souls/spirits (Sam), several types of creations (Nawa chait), substances (La:wa) and objects (Chiga:kwa), both virtuous and evil of the cosmos.Sangram Pedang Denat the topof the universefor the virtuous persons and Chikwa Pakwaden/ Khema Yangsangat the bottom for evil/bad people are two extreme opposite worlds with some worlds in between for people with moderate, but dissimilar destinies. Such hierarchical order of the worlds/lands seems to be a recent explanationas it is not consistent with the concept of 'Yetlam' (intersection of eight paths) that delineates intersection of eight paths each leading to different horizontal directions to reach the land of Tagera Ningwaphuma and other Mangs and Sammangs- Sangrang Pedangden; the sacred land of the souls of virtuous, conscientiousand honest personsstaying together-Sunaingdonden,lands of souls of the dead scholars, devotees and pious persons- Mudakkum Sewaden; land of ancestors-Samyuknaden(souls of dead Tuttu Tmyahang, Yakla Suhangma, Sisa Menching, Nali Thangben and children); land of thesouls of dead Phedangma, Samba, Yeba and Yema- Sangwalung Ngekwalung Sangsanglungden; lands of the souls of those who suffered from unnatural death- Lamenda Nammendaden/ Idhuk Sogha Khamlep, lands of the souls of dead criminals- Chikwa Pakwaden and so on. Taoism also describes the comprehensive structure and dynamics of the cosmos and the way of life that can be achieved by virtue, compassion and humility.It is difficult to determine the impressions of Taoism on Mundhums,just by first hand impression. It needs serious comparative study.

(xi) Four cardinal directions of the universe symbolize four different concepts for Yakthungs. East (Nanget)representsholy lands or locations of Mang (deities) and Sammang (divinities)-Samgram pedangdenand the West (Namdha)[25], lands/locations of dead persons (Kheme yangsang), evil spirits (Sogha sugup/sugut) and criminal spirits(Chikwa pakwaden).North (Thanget) symbolizes lands of ancestors- Chotlung, Mudakkum Sewachang, Samyuknaden and the South: represents lands of disease, misfortune and failures.

(xii)Various explanations and justifications are given for evanescence of life (thknamla thikyemba nasingen thakthambu sa) in Mundhums. Lots of hardships, difficulties, problems, troubles and tribulation have to be faced to lead meaningfully enjoyable life. Mundhums suggest various ways of psychological, biological, spiritual and philosophical valuesand communal importance in the forms of rituals such as Pungwa Chngma(making life flower lively/fresh), Paklung Lepma (throwing stone shot-put), Warak Thengma (protecting lake of life), Silam Sakma (blocking the path of death) to overcome such adversities. Sacrifice of fowls and animals is most common in these rituals[26]. The phraseology of the Mundhums divulges that sacrifice is a gift or present to the deity or divinity to get future favor, a substitute for the tribulations or death of the sacrificer and a means for atoning for misdeeds, violations of divine and social/community orders and norms, and other sin or evil actions.Symbolsand methods used in such rituals affirm coherent,normatively defined social relationshipsand metaphysical relationships in the universe that lead to value-based a system of social action, regulate internal solidarity and maintain external identity.

(xiii) Cho?lung(a land symbolizing dignity, accomplishment, completeness) is a much acclaimed concept in all Mundhums. It is a visionary land glittering by the rays of the sun, a land shining by the light of the moon and a sacred land of beautiful scenery and infinite joy[27]. Cho?lung Mundhumpostulates that there is no other things or attributes as valuable as dignityfor human beings and dignity entails all kinds of freedom andequality, wide ranges of choices and opportunities and self-fulfillment and accomplishment. Mundhum insists us to protect dignity (Cho?lung) at any cost.

Axiology(Mellung-Ingjum)

Axiology or a value theory (Mellung-Ingjum), a branch of philosophy deals with the nature of value and issues pertaining to its forms like ethical value of right, wrong, obligation, vice and virtue; aesthetic value of beauty and ugliness and epistemic value of justification and lack of justification (Audi et al. 2009:951). It examines the theoretical propositions relating to value such as standards of value: desirable, pleasurable, satisfactory, gratifying or interesting intrinsically or ultimately, materially or non-materially. In this section, ethics (Thimjk Mundhum) has been dealt as a branch of axiology or value theory interpreting axiology in its broader perspective. Aesthetic, also its branchcould not be dealt due to various constraints. Ethics (Thimjik Mundhum), a study of the moral principles, goodness and right action, correlated with endsto be chosen and pursuedand moral principles governing the choice and pursuits to be followed[28], is the most recurring theme in Yakthung Mundhums, construed as most fundamental elements of cosmological order. It focuses on general understanding of goodness, right action, morality and well-being. Thimjik Mundhum deals mainly with normative ethics concerned with the standardization of moral principles.

Some conclusive dictums of Thimjik Mundhum are presented in brief in the following paragraphs:

(i) Thimjik Mundhum (ethics) is a part of broader Samjik Mundhum (metaphysics) that contains characteristics of ethics in general, logical structure and reasoning to justify moral decisions and knowledge.   It is a moral philosophy evolved through ages, beginning from the hunting age to agricultural age. It is not compiled in single volume or elaborately dealt in single Mundhum.

(ii) Thimjik Mundhum is mainly a normative ethics that emphasize on the standardization of moral principles and it is descriptive ethics also which presents the analysis of the themes behind the ethical codes and their application in various situations. It is teleological in the sense that it provides means/end analysis of good.

(iii) There are some hedonistic elements (judgments on the basis of pleasure and pain) in Thimjik Mundhum. Mujingna Kheyongnama Mundhum, Lahadongna-Suhangpheba Mundhum, Pajaiba-Lupli Adanhangma Mundhum reveal that psychological hedonism or self-indulging consumerism prevailed in early stages which is discerned in the narratives of Mujingna Kheyongna, Sawa Yukphung Kemba, Phiyamlungma, Mukkumlung, Lahadongna and Suhangpheba. When system of social father was not institutionalized and marriage system was not in practice and so, not solemnized[29], it is natural not to have regulated sexual relations. The widely accepted principle of those days was 'it is a sinful irrational act to separate the pair of male and female[30]. Erotic references frequently coming in the various episodes of Mundhums also substantiate the argument that psychological, egoistic hedonism played significant roles to sustain human society in the forms of probably band in primitive ages.

(iv) Thimjik Mundhum scattered in various Mundhumsdiscloses that ethical code of the hunting age (saji- pujichong tangap)was different from that of agricultural age (sing- lung oktang tangsing khoksing tangap).Normative codes were gradually developed by the human need of survival, community solidarity and cooperation and social order[31].Mundhums provide the detailed accounts of the gradual development of kinship, family system and clan system, settled community and gradual changes in the economy (hunting and gathering to settled agriculture), and polity (rise of chiefdom, small republic). Community or society began to interfere in individual affairs that were detrimental to the solidarity, welfare and progress of the community or society and the eco-system. Such processes led to the evolution of altruistic or ethical hedonism. References abound in Mundhums in this regard. The concerns expressed in Mundhums about transitory nature of life (Thiknambasa, Thikyembasa, Thakthambusa) also indicate the necessity of ethical hedonism for enjoying life.

(v) Thims (ethical codes) are teleological, as means are analyzed from ends. For example, incest taboo is imposed to maintain and sustain decent and kinship system, family system, community or social cohesion;to avoid biological degeneration, over population and natural resource depletion; to adapt with ecological system;to avoid unruliness, chaos, pollution; to respect the law and rules of nature and follow the instruction (Sakwa Muing/ Ingjang) of supreme Goddess Tagera Ningwaphuma. This shows that ethical codes and norms are developed to protect community or society from disintegration and degeneration, to maintain moral order, and to ensure well-being and progress of society/community and its members.

(vi)Discussion on moral principles or ethics in Mundhums starts from elaborate discussion on incest (Ka?iphek). Mundhums of Mujingna Kheyongnama, Ipnana Sarenthangma, Irere idhuknama, Lahadongna and Suhangpheba, Phungwa Changma and others reveal that primitive societies had no marriage institution and it took quite a long time to regulate sexual relation. In Mujingna Kheyonga Mundhum it is clearly mentioned that there was no system of social father, brother, sister and clan relatives, except biological mother, and sexual relations were freely maintained with mutual consent during her epoch. Because of such convention, offspringfrom unknown biological father were known as Sammangsa (progeny of divinities), Namsa (progeny of the sun), Lasa(progeny of moon) and Sammet Kejangsa (progeny of air).The argument given for the justificationto end incest practices is as follows: incest generatesand provokes Sogen Soma (evil conducts/actions), Lavak Aplek (conspiracy, cruelty), Tingding Nahen (envy and jealousy), Iksa-Khambek Pho:pma(pollution of earth)[32], unwanted population growth, human degenerationand emergence of pests, insects and noxious organisms and harmful super-natural entities[33].Mundhums also indicate that Thims were developed by council of wise persons (Phanghangs/ Samba-Yeba/Yema), community leaders(Yethang/Tumyang/Suhangma) with the participation of concerned community members under the guidance of divinities and natural entities like birds, animals, plants and others.  This shows that values, norms, ethics, rules and regulations were developed by a incessant, arduous process of observation of natural laws, long social experiences and extensive interactions with all concerned community members keeping nature and spirituality in balance.

(vi) Nahen (jealousy/envy),naso thappan (intolerance, anger), chekya (evil action, evil intention), sogen soma (misconduct, incest), lavak eplek (conspiracy, intrigue, miscoduct),panbhot-ingbhot (disinformation/misinformation, mislead, lie), layo-lasot (sin, evil deeds), sangdo-eplek(injustice, atrocity, oppression, cruelty),khimbrak (greed),iple:kkhe (deception),iswa (fraud, forgery), khuchchiba (theft, plundering)[34],chi:chching (hatred), che?yapan (slandering, defamation),khumma (to trouble/ torment), adhingani (cruelty), angdhak/angding (arrogance), epma (atrocity/ oppression),Khanglek (quarrel, dispute, division), Kuyo:k (unhappy acts/unintended results) are sources of all ills that hinder solidarity, survival, well-being, progress and prosperity community/society and its members and cause immediate as well as long-term individual and collective downfall and destruction.Panbhot-Ingbhot (misinformation/disinformation) was the root cause of incest[35], which led to all kinds of social ills and is till a dangerous vice for solidarity, progress and prosperity.These vices not only affect present generation, but also the future generation, at least up to eighth-ninth generation (Yet-thak -Phang- thak). Sawara Yetchham Thim suggests elaborate measures, methods and moral dictums to rectify and avoid such vices or evils and proposes virtues, some explicit like Kuno? kuda(benevolence/altruism/compassion),Nu Tage-takmi (benign end), Nu Pege-pekmi (righteous means),Samyo(piousness),Indhak (inter-generational good work), Mingdhak (good reputation, fame), Aplung tangsep (well-being protection), Changhi thobo (gradual progress),Yetkap-phangkap (togetherness, solidarity), Cho:tlung (dignity) and some implicit through the use of mythical characters, symbols and testimonies.

(vii) Apart from emphasis on goodness, virtue, right action, morality, Thimjik Mundhum underscores the value of cosmic well-being and unethical or immoral intentions/attitudes, actions and conducts pollute and destroy the whole order the cosmos and earth. Mundhum narratives are elaborate ones to postulate that vices and sinful acts not only trouble the social relationships, but the welfare of all living organisms on earth.

(viii) Thimjik Mundhum contains de-ontological aspects also. It emphasizes on the ethics of duty or obligation. They are expressed in the forms of Ningwaphu Inghang (supreme instructions), Sakwa Muing (divine messages), Siwa Khahun (wise instruction),Ingdat (preaching, teaching), Ondhakpan (derectives), Tathak (dialogue), Tacheng (statement) and in other various forms of expression and communication.

(ix) Though the construction and development of ethical codes (Yetchham Thim) is attributed to Sawa Yethang (eight great leaders) with the guidance of Phang Samba (nine scholars), it is clearly seen in the Mundhums that they are the results of collective endeavors and cumulative contributions and they have developed through ages. By the time of Sawa Yethang of later period, they appeared in matured and consolidated forms. They carry the special characteristic of the lands/territories and their environments from where they were originated and developed. Sawara Yetchcham Thim includes all types of rules and regulations to run and manage state, government and social ordersand Pegela Phangsam Thim consist of all types of rites and rituals, religious ceremonies to regulate cultural and spiritual life.Yakthung society is still guided by these Thims.

(x) Mundhums expatiate in some details about the ritual journey (journey of souls to reach destination) and narrate the details of the paths of the journey symbolically relating to human life. Several paths are described, some of them vertically climbing up to the top of the mountain and some horizontally going to the different directions. The travellers have to encounter, sometimes, intersection of eight paths (Yetlam) and sometimes, of three paths (Sumlam) leading to different directions and destinations. Middle path (Kulumma Lam) is suggested for successful journey[36] and extreme paths of left and right are generally avoided as they lead towards death and destruction or misery (see brief discussion on Yetlamin Metaphysics section).

(xi) There are lots of references in Mundhums about the cordial and virtuous way of service seeking which is an indigenous way[37]. Service seekers should welcome (Lamla)service providers humbly with food and drinks. Service seeker should offer Tengo Langbang (a form of travel cost).One should not get service of any kind without paying remuneration (Nari Kujem)in any acceptable forms.Mundhum emphasizes on high appreciation of labour and contribution.

(xii) Mundhum places high value on natural balance. Hunters have to worship hunter divinities (Pung Sammang) before hunting (Sawa yukphung) and should pray for getting favour for abundance of hunted wild animals and birds to keep natural balance.Hunters maintain optimum alertness to take care of environmental protectionfor avoiding wrath (in the forms of accidents, misfortunes, calamities and so on) of forest divinity (Tanbhungna).The philosophical themes of Mundhums dictate that indiscriminate destruction of trees, forest, birds and animals lead to the destruction of destroyers themselves.

Evolutionism (Changkhi-Thobo Itthum)

Evolutionism (Changhi-thobo itthum), not in perfect sense of or fully consistent with Darwinism, is one of the recurrent themes of Yakythung Mundhums. Mujoklung Khajoklung Mundhun begins from the description of Muhangling Khehangling (void) without any kind of existence at the beginning and gradual appearance of Tunghik-pahik (fog/mist), Surit-kejang (air), Tarang-tangsang (either), Kehik-namhik (atmosphere),Mudhung-khese (heavenly bodies), Chaphat thungwa (water), Tungun-warak (ocean), Padhung le?nga(fishes), Iksa-khambek (earth), Midhung-mirak (fire), Tabu-singlang (plants), Thaksa-pusa (birds), Thakpu-kubu (animals) and so on and finally Menchhyam-yapmi (human beings).  Mundhum provides details of step-by-stepappearance of species evincing gradual evolution of species though each creation (Nawa Chait) is attributed to creator (Nawa Kujoksing) and evolutionary process is distinct- each object of the cosmos contributing to the evolution of another more complex or composite object or each simple organism contributing to the evolution of more complex or developed organism.

Interesting process of societal evolution is outlined in various Mundhums. The first generation of human species is depicted as Khambongsa Lungbongsa, progeny or sons and daughters of the earth. Earliest human generation was called Sammangsa, offspring of deities/divinities, Namsa (Nambhinjongsa), offspring of sun, Lasa (Labhinjongsa), offspring of moon and Sammet Kejangsa, offspring of air and so on. At the later period human beings were called Kai Sodhoksa, incestuous progeny, which indicates that marriage institution was not developed and descent rules or lineage principles were not socially constructed or standardized.

Mundhums have hundreds of narratives relating to hunting age. Human beings were known as Sakeppa Sajichong (animal hunters), Pukeseppa Pujichong (birds hunters) and Yonjiyong (fisherfolk) and references abound about them. Mundhums provide the clue that gradually horticulturist emergedknown as Sigera Yebhungeksa (Sigera Yebhung, a divinity of food grains). Later on, Singaktang-lungaktangsa, Tangsing-khoksingsa/ Thoksing Thangsingsa appeared who were primitive agriculturists. Farming of takmaru ya, sangkhama-lingkhama ya, parama kakama ya, tangdoma pena, mangra, piyappa, takhakpa, tomri, haksi/siwere most prevalent during their time[38].Evolutionary processes discerned in Mundhums need rigorous study and exploration.

Social philosophy (Sangchumgen Mundhum)

References abound in Yakthung Mundhums relating to philosophy of religion and theology, philosophy of mind/ psychology, philosophy of education, philosophy of economics, philosophy of history, philosophy of language, philosophy of logics, political philosophy, philosophy of love and sex, to mention a few. In this section, I dare to attempt to deal with some of the key concepts of socio-cultural philosophy nested in the Yakthung Mundhums in the following paragraphs.

Communitarianism/Collectivism (Sanglup Ithili/Parup Itthili):

Communitarianism (Sanglup Ithili) and collectivism (Parup Itthili) are the recurring key themes of Mundhums. They ritually emphasize on joint or collective actions, whether they are sacred or profane. Yakthung ontological understanding is collective and communitarian survival, well-being, progress and dignity. The following beautiful verses wonderfully carry the spirit of collectivism and communitarianism:

Sawarasase yethangdingsase (O! progeny of Sawa Yethang)

Khamjirisase khambongbasase (O! progeny of soil/earth)

Lungjirisase lungbongbasase (O! progeny of stone/mountain)

Alla- Sawa pogi ang yettha pogi ang (Now, let us get united and rise collectively)

Hukso tangim ang tange tangim ang (keeping movement of hands and feet in harmony)

Ningkhuwakusik nachhang pogi ang (swarming like a Ningkhuwa bee)

Namdhinggo kusik kapsang pogi ang (being together like colors of rainbow)

Karangwa kusik timbhak pogi ang (making row like Karangwa bird while in distant flight)

Sanglng pegiro anglang pegiro (let us start a journey with harmonious steps)

There are several such references. Collective welfare and community solidarity is the one of the key themes of Mundhums.Tingding Nahem (jealousy/envy) is most frequently repeated theme in Mundhum. It has been described as main evil that destroys human beings, families, clans, communities, and ethnicities and causes environmental disaster. Yakthung communities are so much afraid of this evil. This is the main element to sabotage solidarity and harmony of family, clan, community and ethnicity.Lungdhung Kai Mundhum also contains the similar concepts. Chotlung is another philosophical concept inMundhums, which is concerned with human dignity. It is a communitarian value.

Yakthung observes several cultural festivals and religious ceremonies like Tongsing, Yokwa collectively and associated rituals and symbols remind the participating members of maintaining communitarian solidarity and fulfilling mutual obligations.

Communitarianism and collectivism are the crux of philosophical themes of Yakthung mundhums.

Indigenism (Khambongitthili/Khambongitthum):

Mundhum itself is an indigenous knowledge and indigenism is reflected in all themes of metaphysical, axiological and epistemological deliberations. Khambong-Lungbongsa(sons/daughters of the soil)and Lagedangsa(sons/daughters of the owners/custodians of the land) are described as indigenous peoples entitled to sovereign and first rights to lands, territory, natural resources and ecosystem management and maintain cultural integrity and socio-economic order. Kham Ingma Mundhum performed in the burial ground discloses that Khambong-Lungbongsa/ Lajedangsa are the real owner and authority of lands or earth and not only the government, even gods have no rights and authority to deprive them of their sovereign, universal rights. Mundhums entreat that earth or lands; water including spring, river, ponds and ocean; air, sun, fire, sky or space can never be the personal property and they for the common good of the whole community. Mundhums prescribe certain norms for the use of lands and natural resources such as first entitlement; group or collective entitlement; community management; collective decisions; complementarity, reciprocity and cooperation in relation to production and distribution; participatory processes and balance in eco-system. Mundhums also provide some sketches of community justice system, participatory republican system of governance and autonomous council system for community local governance. There are some references in Mundhums that indigenous communities are self-determining and self-reliant entities, that have the power of penalizing others (out-group members) who are detrimental to community cohesion and welfare or wrongdoers in the community.

Mundhum indigenism affirms that Yakthungs have cultural and spiritual relationship with their lands and the earth on which they stand is their mother and the environment in which they survive is their father, life giver. Various Mundhums provide details of the mountains, mountain-tops, hills and hill-tops, forests, groves, meadows, rivers, lakes and ponds as the abode (Yuknaden),meeting place (Chumlungden), wandering region (Pangwamaden) and place or natural object associated with dignity/prestige (Cho?lung) of Mang (deities), Sammang (divinities) and ancestors.Ancestral lands and territories are demarcated and identified by Sakhewalung (ancestral stone pillar).Mangenna  Mundhum delineates the ancient history of various descent groups of Yakthung and their ancient forts (Mangenna Yak) are described at length to revive their past glories. Close association between toponyms and ethnonyms and clan names also demonstrates the indigeneity of the relationship of peoples and lands.

Yakthung indigenism emphasizes on indigenous ownership of land and denouncesWetmiba (land deserters or those who leave ancestral land) and they are regarded as renegade who forfeit rights to land and other communal/collective rights and properties.It keep the environment (Oyam Chegam) at the core for human actions.

Yakthum Mundhums regard Samba as indigenous philosophers (Samniba), teachers (Sikwa) and repositories (Phu) of indigenous oral knowledge. There are varieties of Sambas such asMugaplung Khagaplung Samba (made the world bright entertaining), Tappeso Yenaso Samba (first samba of Yethang), Sambakko Samlaing Samba, Sambakko Samjiyep Samba, Sajuwet Mudangwet Samba, Thangseri Teannang Samba (causing thonderbolt),Musedi Phiphama Samma (coming out from the earth), Seremu Phiphama Samma (living under the ground/earth), Okema? kema? Omding Samba (can see everywhere with supra-sensual power, long vision),who represent different schools or disciplines or traditional knowledge. In the same way, there are different types of Yeba/Yemalike Telele tenjuyep ya, Telele Tenchhammukya, Yebakko Yahiliya, Yebakko Yemuktimbaya, Yabakko Yettura and theyrepresent different areas of mystical and magical knowledge having power to communicate with non-human species and super-natural entities.These areas of indigenous knowledge need serious study with perseverance and patience. Yakthum indigenism regards them as great as father and mother (thabe payo sikwa, theme mayo sikwa) and intends to sustain their contribution for human welfare.

Philosophy of justice (Khasen/Khara Mundhum):

Mundhums give us a distinct picture of the concepts of justice and it is more metaphysically and ethically influenced. Justice pervades all animate and inanimate beings. Animals, plants, birds, water/rivers also need justice as they all have souls, experiencing pain and pleasure, sorrows and happiness and rise and falls. Injustice (severe beating without any wrongdoing) done to the dog, Tekedangna, by her mistress Lahadongna and eventual suffering of Lahadonghna as a result of that evil deed is exemplary episode in this regard. There are lots of such narratives in Mundhums. Mundhums maintain that justice is necessary for the maintenance of harmonious relationships in nature or universe. Corporeal punishment seems to be the part of justice system as expatiated in the Mundhum of Lahadongna-Suhangpheba (use of Khanglek, a large wooden rod/bar to separate Lahadongna and Suhangpheba from sexual union), Pajaiba (killing of Lagerpa Namgerekpa by their grand father Sodhung Lepmuhang) and other Mundhums and thus retributive justice seems to have used to justify punishment. Ideas of corrective justice also prevailed in early times. There are also lots of references in relation to distributive justice. It is explained in various context in the Mundhums that distributive injustices cause various types of social ills like Kudak Kudhi Soma (social ills caused by the lack of food and drinks), Makkho Hambek Soma (social ills caused by the lack of ginger and tourmaline), Sammng Yuppa Soma (social ills caused by gold and silver), Hili Mudhing Soma(social ills caused by diamond and pearls) and so on. There are two clear concepts in Mundhums about justice: justice should be accessible and available easily and culturally sensitive; and judges should be wise persons, impartial, austere, disciplined and tested in dispensing justice.

Samban (punishment) is a must for wrong doing and committing crimes or various forms of injustices. Samban may be of various forms ranging from corporeal punishment, social isolation to wealth confiscation depending upon the nature, severity and frequencies of crime. Compensation to victims is regarded as best option to restore justice. Emphasis is laid on fair process.Philosophy of justice as alluded in Mundhums is basically based on Yakthung moral and spiritual philosophy. The practice of Sambhoklung/Samboklung- a place/ platform where a sacred stone pillar is erected for justice dispensation and culprits have to give statement by touching a kind of grass-Pinchha Sambok(Cynadon dactylon) and shining stone (Lungserung) in front of pillar in the presence of a team of traditional judges and juries was in practice almost a century ago. Symbolic presence of metaphysical entities compelseveryone, including the culprit, to speak the truth and distinguish justice and injustice in the perpetrated acts.Manghup Mangde (cursing) is also a way against injustices whose remedy is elaborate one.Experts of Mundhums have a tradition of describing Mugaplung Khagaplung Samba as a great jurist and scholar/thinker of jurisprudence.

Divine punishment and impacts of unjust actions of perpetrators to their several generations are recurrent themes in various Mundhums.Samjik Mundhum gives the brief account of Mudhangkharaden, a place where judgment is done on the actions of dead persons while they were alive and judges are some Mangs(deities) to give judgments.Indications are almost clear- souls of culprits or criminals are severely punished and one cannot escape from the divine punishmentwho have committed vices and injustices. It is also argued in some episodes of Mundhums that the soul of pious, conscientious and fair-mindedperson goes to Sunaindongden (haven) after his/her death.Yethang Mundhum says ultimate dispenser of justice is Sodhung Lepmuhang,a demi-god or a divinity[39].

Political philosophy (Hangthim Mundhum):

Political philosophical themes are also found in Mundhums. A brief outline of the political philosophy is as follows:

(i) During the early days (most probably during Neolithic period) of Sajichong, Pujichong (hunters)and Yonjiyong (fisher-folk), people lived in bands and their societies were acephalous (headless) or stateless. Several Mundhums provide the indications thatpolitical system was segmentary type (descent groups based) and polycentric. It gradually developed intotribal societies with collegiate leadership or tribal leadership which in due course of time turned intochieftaincies/chiefdoms, small republics andkingdoms.

(ii) Descriptions of the institution of Sawa Yethang divulge that ancient indigenous political system includes: small manageable republican system with councils (Chumlung, Chumbho)of wise men/women and young people; participatory, inclusive, fully democratic governance devoted to welfare and dignity of people; self-determining autonomous territorial units; indigenous justice system; community ownership of lands and natural resources with fair system of distribution; unrestrained basic human and social/collective rights and institutions for maintaining highest standards of cultural life and community solidarity.

(iii) Phanghang is the instituion of Phedangma, Samba, Yeba, Yema, Mundhumsaba, Pantumyang and other wise men/women or scholars, serves as advisor to Sawa Yethang. Sawa Yethang remains incomplete in the absence of Phandhang

Mundhum of the separation of Yethang and Phanghang,however, evinces that spheres of religion and state should be separated and state should be secular.

(iii) System of Chumlung/Chumbho is another institution referred in Mundhums. It is again a participatory and deliberative institution of governance and management of socio-cultural affairs. It is a symbol of unity, solidarity and cooperation.

(iv) Power is gained by unity and unity is gained by consensus and consensus is made on the basis of wider deliberations and effective consultationsare the motto of the political philosophy of Mundhums. Cooperation rather than competition is the norm of the governance.The following Siwa Khahun (wise saying) frequently referred in Yakthung socity reminds us the theme in this way:

Langbe nugara wayemlo (if leg/thigh is strong, river can be crossed)

Phaktang tanggara singbanglo (if shoulders are harmonized, trunk of a tree can becarried)

Langben tagara lang nuro (if stepping is perfect, the dance will be better)

Ingdang nugara thum panlo (If deliberations are good, the conclusion will be compelling)

Chumlung nugara adhumlo (if unity is perfectly maintained, we will be strong)

(v) Sawa Yethang Thim(moral code of eight great leaders) emphasizes on decision by consensus and suggests avoiding majority- minority rules in decision at best possible. Any voices, either of minority or majority, and either of individual or collectivity that are reasonable (right) and rational (good)[40]should be fully accepted by the decision- making bodies.

(vi) Human dignity is the foremost concern of the system of governance.Concepts of Cho:tlung (land symbolizing accomplishment and dignity), Mangenna? Lungdhung (sacred land of first habitation), Mangenna? Yak (sacred fort of the clan territory), Lasebha-Namsebhaden (land always illuminated by the rays of sun and light of moon) and other sacred places evince that human existence is meaningless without ancestral territory.

(vii) Lungmang Yak Singmang Yak is not only political and cultural capital but also a symbol of sovereignty, autonomy and territorial integrity.

(viii) Sovereign ancestral territories or homelands are demarcated by Hamsenglung, a stone pillar representing border and ownership of territory/country and should be protected at all costs.

(viii) Several references can be traced in Mundhum, Khahun and Kheban that lay emphasis on social justice particularly justice by recognition, distributive justice, and participatory/political justice. Greatest benefits for the least advantaged;fair equality of opportunity;freedom for all[41]; care for the deprived people or weaker sections of society; protection of orphans, children, women,elderly people, people with disabilities are suggested measures for maintaining distributive justice. Mundhums also suggest equality of resources as of today by Dworkin (Wolff, 2011:19-21).

(ix)Tonsing Takma Mundhum places high value on freedom along with human dignity. It is claimed that only freedom, equality and dignity lead to enjoyable and meaningful life. Equality is the norm to guide human behaviors. It is also emphasized thatthe respect for and persuasion of equality, freedom and dignitynever cause conflict in society.

Conclusion (Pansup/Tangen)

Phedangmas, Sambas, Yemas and Yebas and other Mundhumsabas are not only custodians of Mundhums and transmitters/repositories of our indigenous knowledge, but are also indigenous philosophers, though not so-called literate in the modern sense of education. They have so far sustained Yakthung philosophy by maintaining oral tradition and pursuingtheir vocations of conducting sacred rituals.

Yakthung society is indebted to them for their cultural survival.

Mundhums are the only literature through which philosophical contents; themes and ideas can be identified, analyzed, and explained.Yakthung Mundhums are replete with references of metaphysical/ontological, axiological and epistemological reflections. There is a need of extensive and intensive study of Samjik Mundhum (metaphysics/ ontology), Thimjik Mundhum (axiology/ethics), Chait Mundhum (creation myth), Yuma Mundhum and other Mundhums of various themes.Study of published works is not enough, further fieldwork is necessary to clarify the contents, concepts and themes and reach to the level of abstraction. This paper has provided imperfect and unaccomplished description of the philosophical themes ingrained in the Yakthung Mundhums. Some contents of Ta?gic Mundhum (logic)can be detected in various Mundhums. But because of various constraints, this subject was not possible here. Now, it is the duty of the Yakthung scholars to go deep in this subject matter. I appeal to come forward in the mission of glorifyingYakthung identity and dignity, by recollecting the following verse from the Tongsing Takma Mundhum:

Unchhon (In the olden days)

Pare senduva semmena lammo (The path that our fathers had chosen)

Maresenduva semmena lammo(The path that our mothers had    chosen)

Tangso chimmenga pekmena lammo(The path to walk in full swing of legs)

Hukso chimmenga pekmena lammo (The path to walk in full swing of hands)

Sapphak mellae chirep mellaye (Without bowing head just like a bamboo)

Phungphak mellaye yongap mellaye (Without being scattered like the withering petals of flower)

Wasa pegiro tholam pegiro (Let us climb to the top)

Sanglang pegiro timphak pegiro(Let us make orchestrated upward movement)[42]

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Leaman, Oliver. 2004. Key Concepts in Eastern Philosophy. London and New York: Routledge.

Lumpkin, T.W. 2001. 'Perceptual diversity: Is polyphasic consciousness necessary for global survival?', Anthropology of Consciousness, 2001, Vol.12.No.1.

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Norton-Smith, Thomas M. 2013. The Dance of Person and Place: An Overview. pages.uoregon.edu/koopman/slap/readings/tns_dance_person_place.pdf

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Shreng-Limbu, Randhoj (compiler). 1992. Kirat Sumsemba Yagrangsing. Patthari, Morang: Randhoj Shreng-Limbu

Shreng-Limbu, Randhoj (compiler). 1993. Kirat Yakthung Phungnawa (Mekhim) Samlo. Dharan: Chandrabir Nalbo

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Subba, Chaitanya.1998 (First Print 1995). The Culture and Religion of Limbus. Kathmandu: K.B.Subba.

Wolff, Jonathan. 2011 (First Printed 2008).'Social justice and public policy: a view from political philosophy', in Gary Craig, Tania Burchardt and David Gordon (eds). Social Justice and Public Policy: Seeking fairness in diverse societies.Bristol, UK: The Policy Press, University of Bristol.

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[1] See Chemjong, 2003 (1969)

[2] Stewart and Blocker, 2008:4

[3] Ibid.

[4] Stewart and Blocker, 2008:169

[5] For elaborate discussion on this subject, see Hammersmith, 2007.

[6]For example, Sinsara Tayodimme, skilled in building bridges.

[7] For illuminating discussion on indigenous epistemology and knowledge building, see Gray shield 2010, Hester and Cheney 2001, Hammersmith 2007, Norton-Smith 2013. The basic concepts in this discussion have been borrowed from these authors as they fully apply in relation to Mundhums of various themes.

[8] For example, a passage:

Iksa changthobe Khambek changthobe (On earth),

Wasa pe;kmelle tholam pe:kmelle (While ascending to the top),

Tabu nemettho singlang nemettho (Where there are forests),

Tabu ni:tnuaa singlang ni;tnuaa (Keenly observing the trees/plants),

Sanglang pegiro timphak pegiro (Let us go together dancing).

[9] The following passage among several other passages supports this assumption: Nenjum irero ningwa irero, nenjum phaktero ningwa phaktero (the mind responsible for perceptual processes began to ponder widely and deeply, innovative ideas burst/exploded).

[10]See Lumpkin, 2001 for the discussion on perceptual diversity and poly-phasic consciousness and for its relevance on indigenous ways of knowing, see Gray shield, 2010.

[11]Dream (Tadi sepmang) is one of the frequently mentioned ways of acquiring knowledge. The following section of the Mundhum illustrates this:

Tageramettho Ningwaphumettho (In front of Tagera Ningphu),

Sikkum naksene ningwa naksene (To ask for knowledge/idea),

Wasa pegeang tholam pegeang (Went climbing the path upward),

Sewa yukturo sendo yukturo (Bowed/saluted her and asked what he wanted),

Abumenchhyae,  asaporae (My grandson, grandchild),

Langmare yamba sikkum kehoppe (You, with long legs but with no knowledge),

Hukmareyamba ningwa kehoppe (You, with long hands, but with no sense),

Hukchokle kemba, khanit mellemnae (With long fingers, but with no knowledge of mathematics),

Thigekle yamba Nehi memdimnabae (With robust body, but with immature intelligence),

Ikkum kehoppe kunsik kehoppe (You, lack of wisdom, reason/ judgment),

Tengo chokmeyo alang chokmeyo (Just below my leg),

Yunchholayelle Khamak layelle (Lay down when the night falls),

Mikphung nesseo immanesseo (have a sound sleeping),

Tadi lokseo sepmang lokseo (Have a dream)

Tadi pi?nero sepmang pi?nero (I will instruct you in a dream).

Source: Mundum compilations of Bairagi Kainla, Randhoj Shreng-Limbu and others.

[12] It is a described as vital source of indigenous knowledge, a difficult epistemological premise to convince other than indigenous scholars. For the discussion on it, See Hester and Cheney 2001.

[13]One example: Khiyokpa panle, chamyokpa panle, khiyasamaga pong om thasusi (byusing the language of the dog, he called them)

[14]Deloria et al. 1999 cited in Hester and Cheney 2001:321-322.

[15]Popular adage: Yaba lamma yalingtho kepma (if one has to be a Ya, must reach the pinnacle of the Ya career), Samba lamma samlingtho kepma (if one has to be a Samba, must reach the pinnacle of Samba career), Tumyahang pongma kulingtho kepma (if one has to be a gentleman, must get the final stage of perfection).

[16] For comprehensive discussion on these concepts, see Foley 1985; 1988/1991; Ong 1982/2002.  

[17]For examples, a few references of Mundhums are presented here:

Khebaklung sambe mubaklung sambe (Crab, my teacher/guide)

Sapnaso sambe kusapso sambe (Small white stripped fish, my teacher/guide)

Karangwa sambe kudimso sambe (Anthropiades virgo with perfect flight, my teacher/guide) 

Khu:kwettang sambe ngakwettang sambe (Hawk, Cuckoo, my teachers/guides)

Mangjummang sambe mangwana sambe, (Hornets, assistants of gods, my teachers/guides)

Ijummang sambe iwana sambe, (Swarming wasps, my teachers/guides)

Pajummang sambe padheang sambe (Wild bees living in union, my teachers/guides)

Wejumbu sambe wehambe sambe (Wild cat of water, my teacher/guide).

[18]Female supreme goddess, smply known as Tageraningwaphu, Tagera- omnipresent, and ningwaphu- omniscient.

[19] The following passage of the Mundhum authenticates this proposition:

Samu mukkille sere mukkille (by the power of teachers),

Nendhak muklemu pakwa muklemu (by the power of knowledge/secret formula attached to the body),

Hukso ka:ktumlo tange ka:kytumlo (Let us cross the hurdles)

Wasa pegiro tholam pegiro (Let us move upward through a progressive path)

Aplung pegiro tangsep pegiro (let us follow the path of well-being)

[20] Srinivas and Sastry 2007:294.

[21] For the detailed discussion on Mang, Sammang and Sammang Chyang, see Subba (Pondhak) 2005: 25-33: see also Subba 1998 (1995):236-284.

[22] See Subba (Pandhak) 2005 on comprehensive discussion on philosophical concepts of Yuma Samyo (religion) tradition.

[23]The following Mundhum verses shed light on the life after death:

Hene? Changsi kebesang yagu kebesang (though you have died),

Yo:mma Kenyaren ma:ma kenyaren (you did not dissolve and decayed),

Ki:ma (rot) kenyaren, ma:ma kenyaren (you did not rotten, you did not disappeared),

Yakpe:k siganglo phukku siganglo (at the hill, at the cave),

wajik samnaba:n lamdhong samnaba:n (we had kept/placed you),

Thenang po:kkhelle yo:mma kenyaren (what happened, why you did not dissolve),

Thenang po:kkhelle ki:ma kenyaren (what happened, why you did not decayed)

larik- Tentumyangba nu pantumyangba:lle (in this way, Tentumyangba and Pantumyangba),

 Peli te:setchhu pa:nla tesetchhu (asked her),

Alla- Yangsinggumma:lle mangennama:lle (now, their beloved sister),

Sakwa thasuro muing thasuro (gave the message),

E-Alla Menchham po:ngma ang yapmi po:ngma ang (now, by becoming a human being),

Sangu nupseang sakma nupseang (as the vital air of life extinguished/ ceased),

Yagu peganglo changsi peganglo (I died),

Alla- Iksanematho kahambe:k nematho (now, on the earth)

Adumille ga mu tummui mundhum (when we meet, it becomes happy episode of getting together),

asennille ga mu yethangding sase semmui mundhum (when we die, gentlemen, it becomes sad episode of separation),

Ambi- Hangsinggobase anchhangwabase (O! my respected brothers),

Pantumyangbase tentumyangbase (Pantumyangba and Tentumyangba),

Sawala sa:se yethangding sa:se (descents of revered Yethangs),

Anga- Chelup menghoba;n netyuk menghoba:n (I did not get the observations of death rituals),

Tagera inghang ningwaphu inghang (as instructed by Tagera Ningwaphu),

Sawa chogemme? yetchham chogemme (follow the instructions, perform full rituals of death),

Chelup ammetamme? netyuk ammetamme (perform my death rituals),

Ki:ma ya:nna?ro yo:mma ya:nna?ro (I will be dissolved and disappeared),

Lo:kpha meda?an singhim meda?an (I will not come at your houses),

Pa:re phaktungdho mare phakthungdho (the laps of my fathers and mothers),

Sanglang khoaro tholam khoaro (I will get and be emancipated).

   Kainla 2014:12-15 re-ordered

[24] Subba (Pondhak) describes 18 worlds (Den) including the earth (Iksa Khambek Den), eight above the earth and nine below it. For elaboration, see Subba (Pondhak), op sit. pp. 54-64.

[25] There are several passages or verses of Mundhums that describes the meanings of four cardinal directions. Among them West symbolizes human tragedy which is expressed in this verse also:

Khema? tangsingin yangsang tangsingin (Tongsing of death/dead persons)

Tahe kham lepphang namdha kham lepphang  (to the west direction),

Sangen tesumlo phoyo tesumlo (Let us throw away).

[26]A passage of Nahen Mundhum on sacrifice: 

Tngding phengara nahen phengara (if envy/malignity comes),

Hara phengara miksun phengara (if jealousy comes),

Asi phengara sima phenga (if death comes),

Phaksarama e yettimbema e, Kabu makkhire kuphak makkhire (O! the blood of the sacrificed pig flowing from the thigh),

Midhuk lengsinge mirak lengsinge (turn into fire and flames),

Wasa sakteo kulam sakteo (block their path),

Sawa sakteo yetkap sakteo (completely block their movement),

Sawa pe:kpe:klo yetnam pe:kpe:klo (for ever),

Tingding sakteo nahen sakteo (obstruct envy/malignity and jealousy).

Asi sakteo silam sakteo (obstruct death).Source: Kainla, 1994 (Nahen Mundhum)

[27] Cho?tlung is described in this way:

Lasebhaden lo chillekpaden lo (This is the shining land by the light of moon),

Namsebha den lo chillekpaden (This is the glittering land by the rays of sun),

Tuttu yukna ro, Tumyangyukna ro (This is the seat of gentlemen),

Yaklayukna ro suhang yukna ro (This is the seat of ladies),

Lingpitmaden lo podema den lo (land of peace and tranquility),

Niyara numa sesema den lo (beautiful scenery- a sacred land),

Tuttu chotlung ro tumyang chotlung ro (This represents dignity of gentlemen),

Yakla cho?lung ro suhangma cho?lung ro (This represents dignity of ladies). 

[28] Audi (general editor), 1999 (1995):284-285.

[29] The following Mundhum verses depict the conditions of society of pre-marriage institution in this way:

Thingdang pora e, asa pora e (My dear son),

Thabe ang hoppa, kemba ang hoppa (You have no your father),

Singakkang hoppa, kendumbo hoppa (You have no your elder brothers),

Phuyan mehoplo, kensa-kendeng mehoplo (You have no your younger brothers),

Yangsing mehoplo, mangenna mehoplo (You have no your sisters),

Sawa kebekle, yukphung kebekle (While going for hunting),

Sisanu kebhot, minchhingnu kebhot (Young beautiful girls may keep you engaged),

Thamera mare kumma yammare (His revered mother),

Peli phakturo yoban phakturo (Said in this way)

   -Shreng -Chongbang : Kirat Yakthung Phungnawa Samlo, 1953. p.18.

[30]  A verse of Mundhum: Igechum semma yemeling semma, layo ni ponglo lasot ni ponglo (to separate the pair of wife and husband will be a sin, an evil act).

[31] For discussion on this subject, see Kainla 1996, 2004, 2014 (five volumes).

[32] Some verses of Mundhum in this connection:

Hangsingobanu sangwa?banu (Brother by close blood relation)

Yangsingomanu mangenna sa:re (Sister by close blood relation)

Tenchham chogesi ka?i chogesi (Got married)

Lungdhung phektesi ka?i phektesi (Established incestuous relation)

Kettak pho:ttemchhu yoba pho:ttetchhu (Polluted the whole geosphere)

Laje? pho:ttetchhu singbung pho:ttetchhu (Polluted the land and plants on it)

Iksa medhimsu kha:mbek medhimsu (Adulterated the earth)

Iksa nemeyo khambe:k nemeyo (On this earth)

S?gen rak mukte so?ma rak mukte (Only incest and misconduct pervaded)

Lava rak mukte e:ple rak mukte (Only conspiracy and evil acts prevailed)

                                    Source: Kainla, 2014, Lahadongna - Suhangpheba Mundhum.

[33] For the description of human degeneration and emergence of harmful organisms and supernatural beings, see Randhoj Shreng-Limbu, 1992:4-41.

[34]Theft for the good reason (public good/well-being) by a qualified person is acceptable: Tumbun su:ndelle warak su:ndelle (if water is lowering/diminishing in the lake), Sudai yasi Khundoma yasi (Ya having incantation power of stealing water), Suda pegiro khunda pegiro (go to steal water).

[35]Some lines of Mundhum on the causation of incest:

Pa:nbho:tte pho:tte pa:mbhoyo sa;sire (Skilled in deceptive talk)

Ingbho:tte pho:tte ingbho:yo sasire (Skilled in distorting information)

Pa:lle pho;ttesu ingle pho:ttesu (Created illusion by deceptive  information and messages)

Tendhamni nu:be me:kkhimni nu:be (Marriage can be done)

Peli pho:ttesu pa:nle pho:tesu (Lied to deceive)

Tendham tanghesu me:kkhim tanghesu (They arranged marriage)

Hangsingobanu sangwa?banu (Brother born by the same father)

Yangsingomanu mangennamare (Sister born by the same father)

Tendham chogesi ka?i chogesi (Married and broke blood relationship)

Lungdhung phektesi ka?i phektesi (Came in incestuous relationship).

                                                                   Source: Kainla, 2014, Lahadonga-Suhangpheba Mundhum

[36] Mundhum passage on middle path (Kulumma Lam):

Sapjirimeba kulamma lamma (the path fully at the middle),

Minuso lamma to:ndo:mba lamma (the path which is straight),

Tutture lamro tumyangre lamro (that is the path of gentlemen),

Yaklare lamro suhangmare lamro (that is the path of respected ladies),

Aplungma lamro tangse;pma lamro (that is the path for well-being and protection),

Sangla;ng abekle timpha abekle ( if taken journey in a row harmoniously),

Lasebhaden tho nam sebhaden tho (a land always shining by the light of the moon and the rays of the sun- a sacred land symbolizing human dignity- Chotlung),

Wasa agetlo tholam agetlo (can be reached).

                                              Source: Mundhum compilations by Kainla, Shreng-Limbu and others

[37] Indigenous way of service seeking:

Mudhakhangbasi thakpahangbasi (Experts of insects that destroy houses),

Lodenhangbasi phungdenhangbasi (Lodenhangba and Pungdenhangba),

Samkelo kelo kewa phungbasi (Singer Kewaphungba),

Sawala saga Yetchhamba saga (The great erudite persons),

Khiya samaga lamla lariklo (Without forgetting way/track like a dog),

Pheya lo:ttemme? chulli  piremme? (Receive them with perfect honour),

Phaksara mage lama taremme (Bring them by extending welcome with pork),

Pagu piremme kudhi piremme (Offer strong beer of millet),

Mangwa piremme kusa piremme (Extend honour and provide meat).

Source: Kainla, 2014, Pajaiba Mundhum

[38] Source: personal conversation with Mundhum expert Ranadhoj Shreng-Limbu.

[39] Sammethumma Yepmethumma, the daughter of Lahadongna and Suhangpheba complained to Sodhung Lepmuhang for injustic in this way:

Lachekya hopte namchekya hopte (I had not committed any crime)

Hukso khetnechchhi tange khetnechchhi (They severed my hands and legs from my body)

Yagu medesang chansi medesang (They killed me)

She finally got justice and was rewarded compensation for injustice.

[40] John Rawls, the eminent political philosopher of the 20th century, postulated 'reasonable' (right) and 'rational' (good) as moral powers of free and equal persons for a just society (for details, see Rawls, 1999 (1971): passim; Freeman, 2007: 54-56. We find some contents in Mundhums of such contemporary sophisticated arguments.

[41] Rawls (1999/1971)championed the idea of distributive justicemore than four decades ago, which widely acclaimed today. It is quite interesting to note that some of these concepts are expatiated in Mudhums in different context and situations.

[42]Kainla, 1994.